Saji, N., Goswami, B., Vinayachandran, P. & Yamagata, T. A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean. Nature 401, 360–363 (1999).
Tierney, J. E., Smerdon, J. E., Anchukaitis, K. J. & Seager, R. Multidecadal variability in East African hydroclimate controlled by the Indian Ocean. Nature 493, 389–392 (2013).
Kaboth-Bahr, S. et al. Paleo-ENSO influence on African environments and early modern humans. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2018277118 (2021).
Maslin, M. A. et al. East African climate pulses and early human evolution. Quat. Sci. Rev. 101, 1–17 (2014).
Trauth, M. H., Larrasoana, J. C. & Mudelsee, M. Trends, rhythms and events in Plio–Pleistocene African climate. Quat. Sci. Rev. 28, 399–411 (2009).
Etourneau, J., Schneider, R., Blanz, T. & Martinez, P. Intensification of the Walker and Hadley atmospheric circulations during the Pliocene–Pleistocene climate transition. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 297, 103–110 (2010).
Ravelo, A. C., Andreasen, D. H., Lyle, M., Olivarez Lyle, A. & Wara, M. W. Regional climate shifts caused by gradual global cooling in the Pliocene epoch. Nature 429, 263–267 (2004).
Mudelsee, M. & Schulz, M. The Mid-Pleistocene climate transition: onset of 100 ka cycle lags ice volume build-up by 280 ka. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 151, 117–123 (1997).
Hermes, J. & Reason, C. Annual cycle of the South Indian Ocean (Seychelles‐Chagos) thermocline ridge in a regional ocean model. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 113, 1–10 (2008).
Rao, S. A. & Behera, S. K. Subsurface influence on SST in the tropical Indian Ocean: structure and interannual variability. Dyn. Atmos. Oceans 39, 103–135 (2005).
Nicholson, S. E. Climate and climatic variability of rainfall over eastern Africa. Rev. Geophys. 55, 590–635 (2017).
deMenocal, P. B. African climate change and faunal evolution during the Pliocene–Pleistocene. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 220, 3–24 (2004).
Levin, N. E. Environment and climate of early human evolution. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci.43, 405–429 (2015).
Hall I. R. et al. South African Climates (Agulhas LGM Density Profile) (International Ocean Discovery Program, 2017).
Ullgren, J., van Aken, H., Ridderinkhof, H., De, Ruijter, W. The hydrography of the Mozambique Channel from six years of continuous temperature, salinity, and velocity observations. Deep Sea Res. I 69, 36–50 (2012).
Backeberg, B. C. & Reason, C. J. C. A connection between the South Equatorial Current north of Madagascar and Mozambique Channel eddies. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37, 1–6 (2010).
Makarim, S. et al. Previously unidentified Indonesian Throughflow pathways and freshening in the Indian Ocean during recent decades. Sci. Rep. 9, 7364 (2019).
Backeberg, B. C., Penven, P. & Rouault, M. Impact of intensified Indian Ocean winds on mesoscale variability in the Agulhas system. Nat. Clim. Change 2, 608–612 (2012).
Paris, M. L., Subrahmanyam, B., Trott, C. B. & Murty, V. S. N. Influence of ENSO events on the Agulhas leakage region. Remote Sens. Earth Syst. Sci. 1, 79–88 (2018).
Palastanga, V., Van Leeuwen, P. & De, Ruijter, W. A link between low‐frequency mesoscale eddy variability around Madagascar and the large‐scale Indian Ocean variability. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 111, 1–15 (2006).
Ridderinkhof, H. et al Seasonal and interannual variability in the Mozambique Channel from moored current observations. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 115, 1–18 (2010).
Ridderinkhof, W., Le Bars, D., Von der Heydt, A. & De, Ruijter, W. Dipoles of the south east Madagascar Current. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 558–562 (2013).
Yamagami, Y. & Tozuka, T. Interannual variability of South Equatorial Current bifurcation and western boundary currents along the Madagascar coast. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 120, 8551–8570 (2015).
Jin, X. et al. Influences of Pacific climate variability on decadal subsurface ocean heat content variations in the Indian Ocean. J. Clim. 31, 4157–4174 (2018).
van Oldenborgh, G. J., Doblas-Reyes, F. J., Wouters, B. & Hazeleger, W. Decadal prediction skill in a multi-model ensemble. Clim. Dyn. 38, 1263–1280 (2012).
Herbert, T. D. et al. Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems. Nat. Geosci. 9, 843–847 (2016).
Groeneveld, J. et al. Australian shelf sediments reveal shifts in Miocene Southern Hemisphere westerlies. Sci. Adv. 3, 1–9 (2017).
Liu, J. et al. Eastern equatorial Pacific cold tongue evolution since the late Miocene linked to extratropical climate. Sci. Adv. 5, 1–7 (2019).
Fedorov, A. et al. Patterns and mechanisms of early Pliocene warmth. Nature 496, 43–49 (2013).
Haug, G. H., Tiedemann, R., Zahn, R. & Ravelo, A. C. Role of Panama uplift on oceanic freshwater balance. Geology 29, 207–210 (2001).
Brierley, C. M. et al. Greatly expanded tropical warm pool and weakened Hadley circulation in the Early Pliocene. Science 323, 1714–1718 (2009).
Tierney, J. E., Haywood, A. M., Feng, R., Bhattacharya, T. & Otto-Bliesner, B. L. Pliocene warmth consistent with greenhouse gas forcing. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46, 9136–9144 (2019).
Cane, M. A. & Molnar, P. Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a precursor to east African aridification around 3–4 million years ago. Nature 411, 157–162 (2001).
Petrick, B. et al. Glacial Indonesian Throughflow weakening across the Mid-Pleistocene climatic transition. Sci. Rep. 9, 16995 (2019).
Karas, C. et al. Mid-Pliocene climate change amplified by a switch in Indonesian subsurface throughflow. Nat. Geosci. 2, 434–438 (2009).
Karas, C., Nürnberg, D., Tiedemann, R. & Garbe-Schönberg, D. Pliocene Indonesian Throughflow and Leeuwin Current dynamics: implications for Indian Ocean polar heat flux. Paleoceanography 26, PA2217 (2011).
Christensen, B. A. et al. Indonesian Throughflow drove Australian climate from humid Pliocene to arid Pleistocene. Geophys. Res. Lett. 44, 6914–6925 (2017).
Chen, Z., Wu, L., Qiu, B., Sun, S. & Jia, F. Seasonal variation of the South Equatorial Current bifurcation off Madagascar. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 44, 618–631 (2014).
Rippert, N., Baumann, K.-H. & Pätzold, J. Thermocline fluctuations in the western tropical Indian Ocean during the past 35 ka. J. Quat. Sci. 30, 201–210 (2015).
Ahn, S., Khider, D., Lisiecki, L. E. & Lawrence, C. A probabilistic Pliocene–Pleistocene stack of benthic δ18O using a profile hidden Markov model. Dyn. Stat. Clim. Syst. 2, 1–16 (2017).
Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E. & Billups, K. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science 292, 686–693 (2001).
Ravelo, A. C., Lawrence, K. T., Fedorov, A. & Ford, H. L. Comment on “A 12-million-year temperature history of the tropical Pacific Ocean”. Science 346, 1467 (2014).
Wara, M. W., Ravelo, A. C. & Delaney, M. L. Permanent El Niño-like conditions during the Pliocene warm period. Science 309, 758–761 (2005).
Bjerknes, J. Atmospheric teleconnections from the equatorial Pacific. Mon. Weather Rev. 97, 163–172 (1969).
Emeis, K.-C., Anderson, D. M., Doose, H., Kroon, D., Schulz-Bull, D. Sea-surface temperatures and the history of monsoon upwelling in the northwest Arabian Sea during the last 500,000 years. Quat. Res. 43, 355–361 (1995).
Herbert, T. D., Peterson, L. C., Lawrence, K. T. & Liu, Z. Tropical ocean temperatures over the past 3.5 million years. Science 328, 1530–1534 (2010).
Bobe, R. & Behrensmeyer, A. K. The expansion of grassland ecosystems in Africa in relation to mammalian evolution and the origin of the genus Homo. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 207, 399–420 (2004).
Kiefer, T., McCave, I. N. & Elderfield, H. Antarctic control on tropical Indian Ocean sea surface temperature and hydrography. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33, 1–5 (2006).
Mohtadi, M., Prange, M., Schefuß, E. & Jennerjahn, T. C. Late Holocene slowdown of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation. Nat. Commun. 8, 1015 (2017).
Faith J. T. et al. Rethinking the ecological drivers of hominin evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 36, 797–807 (2021).
Hall I. R., Hemming S. R. & LeVay L. J. South African Climates (Agulhas LGM Density Profile) (2016).
Konert, M. & Vandenberghe, J. Comparison of laser grain size analysis with pipette and sieve analysis: a solution for the underestimation of the clay fraction. Sedimentology 44, 523–535 (1997).
Van der Lubbe, H. et al. Sedimentation patterns off the Zambezi River over the last 20,000 years. Mar. Geol. 355, 189–201 (2014).
McCave, I. & Andrews, J. Distinguishing current effects in sediments delivered to the ocean by ice. I. Principles, methods and examples. Quat. Sci. Rev. 212, 92–107 (2019).
Weltje, G. J. & Tjallingii, R. Calibration of XRF core scanners for quantitative geochemical logging of sediment cores: theory and application. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 274, 423–438 (2008).
Miramontes, E. et al. The influence of bottom currents on the Zambezi Valley morphology (Mozambique Channel, SW Indian Ocean): in situ current observations and hydrodynamic modelling. Mar. Geol. 410, 42–55 (2019).
Starr, A. et al. Antarctic icebergs reorganize ocean circulation during Pleistocene glacials. Nature 589, 236-241 (2021).
Anthonissen, D. E. & Ogg, J. G. in The Geologic Time Scale (eds Gradstein, F. M. et al.) 1083–1127 (Elsevier, 2012).
Tangunan, D. N. et al. The last 1 million years of the extinct genus Discoaster: Plio–Pleistocene environment and productivity at Site U1476 (Mozambique Channel). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 505, 187–197 (2018).
Lougheed, B. C. & Obrochta, S. P. A rapid, deterministic age-depth modeling routine for geological sequences with inherent depth uncertainty. Paleoceanogr. Paleoclimatol. 34, 122–133 (2019).
Mudelsee, M. Ramp function regression: a tool for quantifying climate transitions. Comput. Geosci. 26, 293–307 (2000).
Huang, Y., Clemens, S. C., Liu, W., Wang, Y. & Prell, W. L. Large-scale hydrological change drove the late Miocene C4 plant expansion in the Himalayan foreland and Arabian Peninsula. Geology 35, 531–534 (2007).
Schott, F. A., Xie, S. P. & McCreary, J. P. Jr Indian Ocean circulation and climate variability. Rev. Geophys. 47, 1–46 (2009).
McCreary, J. P., Kundu, P. K. & Molinari, R. L. A numerical investigation of dynamics, thermodynamics and mixed-layer processes in the Indian Ocean. Prog. Oceanogr. 31, 181–244 (1993).
Centenary Edition of the GEBCO Digital Atlas (IOC, IHO, BODC, 2003).
Mulet, S. et al. The new CNES-CLS18 global mean dynamic topography. Ocean Sci. Discuss. 2021, 1–31 (2021).
Putrasahan, D., Kirtman, B. P. & Beal, L. M. Modulation of SST interannual variability in the Agulhas leakage region associated with ENSO. J. Clim. 29, 7089–7102 (2016).
Abram, N. J. et al. Coupling of Indo-Pacific climate variability over the last millennium. Nature 579, 385–392 (2020).
Rayner, N. A. et al. Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 108, 1–29 (2003).
McCave, I., Thornalley, D. & Hall, I. Relation of sortable silt grain-size to deep-sea current speeds: calibration of the ‘mud current meter’. Deep Sea Res. I 127, 1–2 (2017).
McCave, I. N., Manighetti, B. & Robinson, S. G. Sortable silt and fine sediment size/composition slicing: parameters for palaeocurrent speed and palaeoceanography. Paleoceanography 10, 593–610 (1995).
van Aken, H. M., Ridderinkhof, H. & de Ruijter, W. P. North Atlantic deep water in the south-western Indian Ocean. Deep Sea Res. I 51, 755–776 (2004).
Ridderinkhof, H. & De Ruijter, W. Moored current observations in the Mozambique Channel. Deep Sea Res. II 50, 1933–1955 (2003).
Lisiecki, L. E., Raymo, M. E. A Pliocene–Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records. Paleoceanography 20, PA1003 (2005).
Dekens, P. S., Lea, D. W., Pak, D. K., Spero, H. J. Core top calibration of Mg/Ca in tropical foraminifera: refining paleotemperature estimation. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 3, 1–29 (2002).
More News
Could bird flu in cows lead to a human outbreak? Slow response worries scientists
US halts funding to controversial virus-hunting group: what researchers think
How high-fat diets feed breast cancer